Understanding Development Theory And Practice In Third World Politics Essay

Understanding Development Theory And Practice In Third World Politics Essay This book is a good synthesis and critique on the theory of development after Second World War. It takes historical perspective on analyzing development theory and its practice and tries to find the context-specific result of those development theories and policies in the third world. In doing so, Rapley has tried to be unaffected by any ideological orthodoxy but his left-alignment is clearly visible. John Rapley, who is a political scientist involved in the Department of Government, University of West Indies (Mora), has successfully captured the essence of development theories being applied in the third world after World War II, in this book. The book is lucidly written, well organized, and easy to understand. It includes elaborate endnotes, good index, and thoroughly assembled and categorized bibliography in accordance with their dominant theoretical fervor. The analytical approach of the book has been to follow historical comparison of mainstream development theory and practice, with related criticisms on them. For doing this he has measured the dominant debate between left critics and mainstream theorists from the perspective of dominant paradigms. He has presented the ebb and flow of neo-classical theory, and has done counter-criticism on neo-Marxists and developmental state theories. Though his arguments are balanced and analytical, people with capitalist mentality may find his argument on reemergence of neo-classical ideology immature and left-centered, while those with leftist gloss will find his insights illuminating and worthy. Nevertheless, his analysis of this wide area of development history is worthy read to students, practitioners and scholars. The book is organized into nine chapters. The first chapter, The Progress of Development, is an introduction to the argument presented in the book. The chapter two summarizes the dominant theoretical trend of immediate post-war period namely rise of Keynesianism and emergence of third world, followed by modernist, dependency and state centered theories. Rapley meticulously presents the influence of Keynesian thought on post war period of state centered development. Birth of third world and development economics as a separate sub-discipline were influenced by recognition of third world as a separate entity which demands different development policy design as opposed to the IBRD policy measures adopted for reconstructing Europe and other countries of First and Second World. Then, the book describes development economists of structuralist school who designed import substitution industrialization for the third world. This school of thought believed that international trade favours indus trialized North at the expense of developing South. But, soon the problems of structuralist schools were to be found in development world. Chapter 3 reflects on the performance of state-led development. The performance of state-led development in third world showed dismal performance. Import substitution industries were proved bad performer, license system of government increased corruption and bad governance, semi-public institutions increased the debt burden of state, and many SOEs were going bankrupt. All this led to poor export performance, inefficiency, underemployment, and poor agricultural performance. Although the central planning of statist model proved successful to increase output it couldnt ensure quality and efficiency in its performance which led to overall unproductive utilization of available means thus causing systemic failure. All these policy failures and theoretical disenchantment of state-led development model led to the clear decline of state socialism by 1980s enforcing many countries of Latin America and Africa to follow the conditionalities of their creditors with whom they have had large debt overdue. But, exception to these problems were the East Asian economies, who were able to overcome these problems by appropriately combining the effort of state with the efficiency of market competition and thus were able to catch up with the pace of international market competition. In chapter 4 and 5, basically talks about the neoclassical response to the failure of state-oriented development model of earlier period and its recommendation for reform. The neoclassical proponents reviewed the failure of import substitution and state-supported industrial policies by saying that there would be losers along with gainersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ this was not necessarily bad (p. 83) and earlier development model did wrong by helping out the losers who were the main cause of inefficiency. They now advocated for promoting winners by focusing on creating environment for export industries, smaller firms, and export crop farmers. Policies for creating such environment were recommended under the framework of Washington Consensus which included: fiscal austerity, privatization of state owned enterprises (SOEs), trade liberalization, currency devaluation, and abolition of marketing boards, financial and labour market deregulation, and export promotion. Defined under an umbrella term of Structural Adjustment Program (SAP), these neo-classical prescriptions were openly supported and promoted by Bretton Woods Institutions which consequently were reflected in almost all of the third world countries where these institutions were working. Moreover, after some experience of reform initiatives and collapse of socialist economy led to the addition of accountability and transparency in governments operations as required variables for neoclassical development model thus both political and economic reform became elements of its reform agenda. The subsequent critique on the performance of neo-classical SAP framework is elaborately explained in chapter 5. Here, Rapley depicts the limitations of structural adjustment and emphasizes on how its application became successful by not due to its internal theoretical strength but due to seemingly no counter-force due to the fall of left because of long stagnation of socialism during early 1980s, historical exhaustion of dependency theory with no clear output, and loss of the Marxist self-confidence. Rapley writes: some evidence suggests that there is no reason to assume that less government leads to faster growthà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. if there is any relationship between the two, it may even be that in the aggregate, more government leads to more growth (p.119). His evaluation of the case of privatization, domestic market liberalization, retrenchment, financial and labour market deregulation demonstrates that there are flaws on the theoretical assumptions and practicalities of structural adjustment program. Its assumption of human beings as rational and self-interested actors is not supported. Many sociologist and anthropologists view human action as a part of collective action and some views like Jean Francois Bayart content that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ just as we cannot expect other peoples to behave the way we do, we cannot apply the same principles to judge their behavior. Similarly, differences between first and third world discredited the apparently same principle of development propounded by structural adjustment program; flaws were seen in new political economy ideology of neo-classical writers. Moreover, the neoclassical logic of accepting the material inequality has been criticized by leftists on moral grounds, even if assuming material inequality to be morally neutral leftist theorists would still condemn it for its economic drawbacks (p.116) to poorer ones. Rapley has given emphasis on the birth of possible challenge to neoclassical theory. He clearly seems to be on the side of the left but is cautious enough to predict that the new paradigm wont be too much influenced by classical left or postmodernist hangover. In chapter 6, he asks for the new paradigm of development to be able to work with market and capitalism, while simultaneously opting for greater role for the state than allowed by structural adjustment program. The neo-institutionalist idea that market does not emerge spontaneously and that different cultural background require the creation of different types of institutions led to the reemergence of the need of state involvement in creating and developing economic institutions. The highly interventionist states of East Asia had selectively protected some strategic industries through tariffs and quota at the same time helped them grow through export subsidies and subsidized credit. They promoted firms towards new forms of produ ction and compelled them to increase their competitiveness. These successful policy measures of East Asian countries have been influential theoretical strands for the reemergence of the developmental state paradigm. Ultimately, in chapter 7 Rapley has returned to the Sub Saharan Africa to show that there are many challenges to follow state-supported development as seen in its successful version of East Asian case. The reasons allotted in the book are internal limitations of Africa (especially the weakness of African state) and international obstacles brought forwarded by international balance of power. His reasons for the seemingly low applicability of Asian developmental model in Africa are more political rather than economic. Some causal factors leading to the crisis of state in Africa like: authoritarianism in the third world, state capacity, concentration of power, class politics, etc. proves for Rapley that Africa is against the tide. Furthermore, he also sees obstacle in international systems to follow the strict state-led growth as enjoyed by East Asian countries in 60s through 80s. Rapley argues, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ it is not only Africa that the emerging practice of development is running i n a direction contrary to that of the theory. The crisis of the state which sees fiscal constraints forcing public authorities to renounce many of their functions, is international in its scope (p.176). Meanwhile retrenchment of state during SAP implementation led to the development of many non-state actors like NGOs, private sector and other groups working as a state within state leading to the weakening of state functions. The chapter 8, entitled as The end of development or a new beginning? is focused on the idea of post-development thought. This thought challenges us to rethink the entire way we conceive development, and to consider the possibility of a paradigm shift (p.177). Presently the world is facing contested political order where there is resurgence of populist movements against globalization to restore control over space/country; while another strand which is closer to postmodern idea is shifting the focus from national to global level through some works like: UN MDGs or WTOs Doha Development Agenda negotiations. Rapley admits: A discipline that emerged in the early post-World War II periodà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ development studies always took for granted the existence of national economies and nation states. Much has changed since. Accordingly, those who take an interest in development are being challenged to conceive new strategies of development. Post-development challenged us to rethink development altogether. (p.200). The recent trend of giving focus on people after the publication of Development As Freedom written by Prof. Amartya Sen has shifted attention of Bretton Woods institutions and other scholars to the fact that development that doesnt improve the lives of the poor people will only provoke resistance and crisis (p.200). Rapley wraps-up the eighth chapter by arguing that the intellectual resistance from post-development ideas and political campaigns of anti-globalization forces has put the agenda of development in the centre stage which is awaiting for good implementation. Finally, in chapter 9 Rapley concludes main arguments presented in the book and also poses some relevant questions demanding serious consideration for leading the future of development. Some of his questions are thought provoking: can development models be universalized? What roles will environmental issues play in development theory? Is there a population time bomb, and how will it affect the third world? What will the new balance between state and society be? At last he has wrapped up his argument by discussing on all these questions in brief. Reviewing the whole book one can easily find that this book is highly comprehensive piece on development theory and practice spending fairly little space or pages. It is praiseworthy to say that this updated volume includes issues of latest debate of 21st century development studies. But, still it has some loopholes. While criticizing on the neoliberal ideas, he has overlooked at its overall performance in countries like India, China, and other high performer countries of 1990s and early 2000s. Similarly, his analysis of third world with high emphasis on African and Latin American countries has ignored poor blocks of South Asian countries and thus has left a large area of development experiment of these years untouched. The number of poor population in South Asian region doesnt justify writers neglect of the region as appropriate. Unlike previous editions of this book, the reviewed third edition has added more to the analysis of future of development. Its analysis of the latest thought of development, viz. post-development, is convincing enough to indicate on the future of development by working together with the questions raised in the concluding chapter. Reading this, readers can guess thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. Notwithstanding these criticisms, Rapleys work is able to present a comprehensive and succinct treatise on the history of development thoughts and practice in third world. His way of presenting the mainstream argument along with the main criticism propounded by left and others on each of these development theories is interesting and useful. This book is can be recommended as a must read for upper level undergraduate students, useful guide for graduate level students, and a common discourse with new insights for the scholars. Readers will not regret about their time and money spent for the book after completing the last sentence.

Is Second Life Ready for Business? Essay

1. How can Second Life provide value to businesses that use it? Second Life can be a birthing ground for new industries and transform business, commerce, marketingand learning the same way that the Web did in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. It alsocan facilitate internal communications and to position themselves at the forefront of the digital landscapein order to recruit tech-savvy employees. Second Life is a low-cost business tool and also a new marketingtool.Companies can use Second Life as a business tool for online conferencing, online collaboration, knowledge management and prototyping. Also companies can test new products using Second Life’s 3 -Drendering programs, experiment with new marketing and advertising campaigns to see how people react,receive feedback on real-world products or services. 2. What kinds of businesses are most likely to benefit from apresence on Second Life? Why? Retail businesses that are already used to doing business online may have an easier time of establishing aviable presence on Second Life. They are used to advertising and marketing to customers online and havethe systems built for taking orders, accepting payments, and shipping products. Other companies, likeIBM, that have established online collaboration systems and online knowledge management systems willprobably have an easier time using Second Life as another outlet for these activities. 3. Considering what you have learned about Second Life, howcould you, as an individual, create a modest start-up businesson the Grid? What goods would you sell? Why would this be agood choice of product? What, in simple terms, would yourbusiness plan be? Why would it work? There are several ways to start up business in an online virtual server. Second Life as of now harbored fewto many online companies that does business online as a form of advertising or even setting up their virtual business inside the server by buying up â€Å"lands† in the so called â€Å"Grid† world. Of course, to do that,you have to buy the virtual â€Å"land† to start up the virtual business by subscribing to the premium [pic]  membership on the website. By subscribing, several beneï ¬ ts can be enjoy including owning a house and rights to own a land. The current subscription cost according to the game website – secondlife.com – isUSD$72 for an annual  subscription, USD$22.50 for a quarter subscription or USD$9.95 for monthlysubscription. Personally and hypothetically, the initial cost for me to setup an online business on the â€Å"lands of the Grid† would be a monthly subscription of USD$9.95 as uncertainty in conveying the business over a decade plus old virtual server especially these past two years have been radically risky withmushrooms of similar online servers like gaiaonline.com and social networking sites like facebook that hasbeen rampaging in this fast-paced information system industry. Also, there are questions about itscurrent popularity against the other fast information changing platforms and how it cope with the current market segment. A typical online business would be an online auction/selling business. Speciï ¬ cally, i would set up a small business that deals with money changing/transfers between users and other onlinegames that offers on line services to its users. For example; an online game offers â€Å"cash –  shop† items that  is only available when you bought it online usually using credit/debit cards, often through sites like pay-pal. What i am offering here in my business is variety of online payments especially in terms of ForeignCurrency exchanges through local banks and also a much more user-friendly interaction between me andthe customers due to the live chatting system and in-game atmosphere in Second Life. A simpleexplanation why this might be a good choice is that, Second Life offers a casual sims like platform thatdoes not stress up their users like those of a massively multiplayer online role playing game (MMORPG) that needs hours and hours of â€Å"training† to achieve a better standi ngs in the game. Another good point isthat online gamers that plays particular games tend to hang out in the same channel or platform towhich, the simple Second Life w hich has quite low speciï ¬ cations  offers a range of 3D avatars to theplayers. This is especially true when the online game that they are playing having their routine servermaintenance which usually comes up once per week. During these one to several hours of maintenance,they could log on to Second Life and have chat with their online gaming friends from another game. Thus,simultaneously advertising my business over to them during these times. In summary, an online  basedbusiness would be a good addition to set up in Second Life. Though prone to risk and currently, the powerof substitutes are increasing like facebook and other networking sites, the opportunity to set up a smallbusiness within Second Life is still feasible due to the nature of online gaming and rapid increase ingaming communities.Considering what I have learned about Second Life, I, as an individual, will first start up my business byfiguring what products are mostly used in Second Life. The product that will sell in Second life will befurniture. This will be a good choice because customers or people in second life will need furniture fortheir new homes and offices. My business plan will be to invest in other products and services and wait tillmy investment grows before cashing out. [pic][pic] 4. Visit eBay on the Web and see what Second Life items youcan find listed for auction. How would you rate the activitysurrounding these items? Are you surprised by what you see?Why or why not? Obviously the information for this question will fluctuate. As of this writing, eBay offered 211 items. Theyincluded how-to manuals for making money on Second Life, a guide to selling land, and businessopportunities on the site. One item in particular was a vending machine business package available for$4.99. The individual offering the item was an eBay Power Seller with 6,483 feedback postings. He wasobviously an established eBay seller. Other items for sale include a Gym Workout package for $4.99 and amacro that makes navigating the skies of Second Life easier. It sold for $12.99. Answers to the last threequestions will vary by student. The point is to have them realize how advanced and pervasive sites likeSecond Life have become. 5. What obstacles does Second Life have toovercome  in order to become a mainstreambusiness tool? Does it face fewer or more obstaclesto become a mainstream educational tool? To what do you attribute the difference? Second Life needs to overcome the idea and perception that it’s â€Å"just another game site.† Other obstacles include ease-of-use, interoperability between pre-established business systems and Second L ife’s  proprietary system. It needs to create ways to import and export data between  its system and externalbusiness systems —don’t require data to be re  -input into either system. Second Life faces more obstaclesin trying to become a mainstream educational tool. Educators are inherently opposed to online, distanceeducation because it supposedly lacks the face-to-face communication between teachers and students.However, as more education is carried online, Second Life has all the tools in place to make it easy toconduct classes, especially its online collaboration tools.

Charles Darwin, The Most Influential Nineteenth Century...

In the 19th century, scientific research progressed rapidly outside the world of industry and technology (McKay 744). British scientist, Charles Darwin, was the most influential nineteenth-century evolutionary thinker. Darwin spent his early career, amassing enormous amounts of biological and geological data from his voyage to South America (Fiero 3). In 1859, he published his classic work, The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, where he summarizes his theory of evolution with the thought of struggle for survival, or natural selection. Furthermore, natural selection is the idea of groups of species surviving through generations by adapting to changes in the environment and using certain characteristics as an advantage. In addition, natural selection challenged traditional ideas about nature and world order, and it was also taken steps further by many thinkers. English philosopher, Herbert Spencer, saw the human race driven forward to ever-greater specialization and prog ress by a brutal economic struggle that determined the â€Å"survival of the fittest† (McKay 745). The notion of a body of thought drawn from the ideas of Charles Darwin that applied the theory of biological evolution to human affairs and saw the human race as driven by an un-ending economic struggle that would determine the survival of the fittest defines Social Darwinism (McKay 745). As European and American upper class sought to extend political and economic power, Social Darwinism proved toShow MoreRelatedFieldwork in Various Anthropological Schools of Thought Essay1167 Words   |  5 Pagesof human societies (History World International, 2001). Many theories to explain cultural variations among humans have emerged. As a result, numerous anthropological schools of thought have been established based on these theories since the nineteenth century. 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Becoming a World-Class Engineering Student Free Essay Example, 2000 words

I have to admit that STEM coursework is a challenge. Albeit I find most of the topics about STEM to be interesting, not all of them are easy to understand. At present, my self-confidence about STEM is not that high because I am still having challenges with some of the subjects related to it. A world-class engineering or computer science student is confident about her knowledge in science, technology, and math but not overconfident that would make him or her lax on his or her study. To become confident about STEM, I will work on the subjects that I have challenges. I believe that overcoming them will spawn a renewed confidence in me about my STEM coursework. I am not reluctant to seek help with friends. I have to admit however that I limit the people I ask help to people that I am comfortable with. Sometimes, I feel shy to ask help from people that I am not close to because they may think I am a bother or not paying attention to my class. A world-class student in engineering an d computer science, however, is not embarrassed to ask help when it is needed. He or she is always on the lookout to understand and master the lessons relating to the course and will not hesitate to ask if he or she does not understand it. Sometimes, these lessons are not even related to the class but the student still asks questions to understand a particular concept. I believe that I must go out of my comfort zone when asking help from peers for lessons that I am not sure of. I must not limit the people that I ask help from my friends but must also include those who are well versed in the subject that includes professors and higher class. I believe that I have no problem with a change that would enable me to grow and improve. I embrace change realizing that it is the only thing that is constant in this world. World-class students also embrace change and are not threatened by it. In fact, they are the agent of change because they constantly seek ways to improve and change how things are done. We will write a custom essay sample on Becoming a World-Class Engineering Student or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now